Todeksi tehty valokuva : Objektiivisuuden rakentuminen uutiskuvajournalismissa

Abstract

Journalistien toimintaympäristö on viime vuosikymmeninä muuttunut perustavanlaatuisesti. Kuvajournalistisessa työssä keskeinen digitalisoitumisesta seurannut muutos liittyy kamera-ja tietoliikenneteknologiaan. Kuvien jälkikäsittely (esim. rajaaminen sävyjen- ja valkotasapainonsäädöt) on siirtynyt pimiöistä tietokoneen ruudulle ja filmikamerat on korvattu digitaalisilla kameroilla. Verkkolehtien syntyminen on tuonut perinteisten lehtikuvaajien työhön videokuvaamisen, ja siten monista 2000-luvun lehtivalokuvaajista on tullut myös liikkuvan kuvan ammattilaisia. Lisäksi yhteiskunnan verkottuminen ja mobiililaitteiden, kuten kännykkäkameroiden, yleistyminen on tehnyt valokuvista jokapäiväistä kuvavirtaa ja mahdollistanut tavallisten kansalaisten ottamien kuvien pääsyn julkisuuteen tiedotusvälineiden tai sosiaalisen median välityksellä. Tämä on luonut valokuville uudenlaisia käyttötarkoituksia, kuten jakaminen tai identiteetin rakentaminen, ja haastanut myös ammattilaiset miettimään uudelleen ammatillisuutensa perusteita ja rajoja.

Väitöskirja tarkastelee journalismin objektiivisuuden ihannetta suhteessa journalistisiin uutisvalokuviin ja edellä mainittuihin työympäristön muutoksiin. Tutkimuksen kokoavina johtopäätöksinä esitetään, että journalismin ammattikäytännöissä käydään jatkuvaa neuvottelua siitä, mikä on objektiivinen uutiskuva. Kuvajournalismin objektiivisuus rakentuu paitsi suhteessa ulkopuoliseen todellisuuteen myös vahvasti suhteessa alan ammatillisiin normeihin. Tukeutumalla alalla vallitseviin sääntöihin ja vakiintuneisiin käytäntöihin ammattilaiset voivat hallita työnsä ideaalien ja käytännön välisiä ristiriitoja ja oikeuttaa tekemänsä ratkaisut osaksi objektiivista journalismia. Nämä säännöt ja käytännöt ovat osittain julkilausuttuja mutta suurelta osin myös hiljaiseen tietoon ja kokemukseen perustuvia ja siten vaikeasti tavoitettavia.Käytännöissä on myös paljon rutiininomaisuutta. Lisäksi ammattilaisten tekemät ratkaisut kytkeytyvät monin tavoin valtaan. Valta on läsnä esimerkiksi tilanteissa, joissa kuvajournalismin ammattilaiset sopeutuvat alalla vallitseviin normeihin tai luovat niitä tai pyrkivät ammattietiikkansa avulla erottautumaan amatööreistä. Vallasta on kyse erityisesti silloin, kun ammattilaiset määrittelevät, millä ehdoilla tuotetut ja minkälaiset valokuvat kuvittavat päivittäin näkemiämme uutisia.

Truthfulness is often considered one of the central characteristics of the photographic medium, both in every day conversation and in theoretical discussion. For example, it is possible to claim that a photograph depicts only what has been in front of the camera. If we ponder the question of what distinguishes a photograph from other types of visual representations, we quite often end up addressing the question of truthfulness. However, the field of photography theory is not united on the question of why the concept of truthfulness is so seamlessly associated with photography. Photography researchers and photographers have, over the past century, had varying opinions of whether truthfulness has more to do with the ontological characteristics of photography as a trace produced by light, or the cultural conventions associated with it. Once a photograph is presented in a journalistic context, it meets the discussion about truthfulness from another perspective. Photojournalism pursues photographs that serve the goals of truthful news reporting. These goals, requirements even, are associated with the concept of objectivity, which is considered as a value, norm and ideal of the occupational ideology of journalism.

This dissertation, A Photograph Produced as Truth, focuses on Finnish photojournalism professionals such as press photographers, photo editors, image processing staff and managers of visual departments. The central research question concerns the issue of what the professional discourse is like in relation to photographic truthfulness, and how this discourse is fulfilled in actual work practices. When the professionals define and outline, for example, what constitutes good photojournalism, they meanwhile construct and reconstruct the understanding about the values of their occupation. In the research material, professionals often emphasize ideas concerned with the objectivity of journalism such as truthfulness, documentation and fact-based information.

The question of journalistic objectivity is multifaceted. It has commonly been associated with the understanding of the Western democracies about journalism which reports facts without distortion and remains as neutral as possible in relation to different interest groups and attempts to influence journalistic content. Objectivity is also an historical concept and the characteristics associated with it have been interpreted in a variety of ways during different historical periods. In the history of journalism, objectivity has been considered a central value; but, more recently, it has also been considered an unnecessary burden that leads to the exercise of mechanical routines in newsrooms. These routines may help the journalists conform to the norms of the news reporting, but those same routines may trap the journalists so that they are unable to disengage themselves from the routines and react to the changes taking place around them. This then, may weaken the credibility of the media. Paradoxically, it can be argued that an ideal, once adopted in order to strengthen the credibility of media and to separate journalists from different interest groups, has in some circumstances turned against itself.

Reasons for these changes may be found by examining the larger societal development since journalism reflects the values that are dominant in the society at any given time. In the United States and Europe, the objectivity of journalism became established during the first decades of the 20th century. Urbanization and industrialization had given rise to societal conditions, in which the authorities were highly trusted, and the knowledge-producing institutions were relatively stable. Hence, the journalists were expected to act as detached observers and report things as they were. Similarly, the value of journalistic photographs was in the possibility to represent reality instead of interpreting the reality with photographs. In Finland, the ideals of objective reporting were adopted gradually since the 1930s when the Finnish party press system began to collapse. Instead, the journalism of the 21st century operates in a very different societal atmosphere. Authorities and their knowledge are commonly challenged; knowledge is constantly created and remoulded by human interactions. One current function for journalism is, therefore, to provide a platform for discussion and motivate people to participate, instead of educating and informing the audience. In addition, today’s journalism needs to meet the economic values that drive journalists to serve the public and provide the type of news that attracts the largest audience. The objectivity ideal of journalism has been increasingly criticized over recent decades. A large number of researchers and journalists agree that journalistic objectivity, in its traditional sense, is outdated and it either must be redefined or replaced by entirely a new norm.

Furthermore, the journalist’s work environment has changed drastically. Among other things, it is a consequence of the digitalization of the functions and services of society since the late 1980’s. As for photojournalistic work, one of the central changes of digitalization has to do with camera and communications technology. Photo editing (e.g., cropping, burning and dodging) is now done on computer screens instead of in traditional dark rooms, and film cameras have been replaced by digital cameras. Secondly, the emergence of online newspapers has brought the video to the work flow of many traditional press photographers. Thus, many press photographers of the 21st century have doubled themselves as professionals of the moving image. Thirdly, the emergence of networks and mobile devices such as mobile phone cameras, has turned photographs into an everyday stream of images and enabled ordinary citizens to get their photographs published, either through traditional or social media. This development has created new roles for the use of photographs such as sharing or identity building, and has challenged professionals to rethink the boundaries and fundamentals of their occupation.

The materials of the research consist of interviews and survey responses that focus on the digitalization of photojournalism and the ensuing changes. In the first interview data, the professionals defined good photojournalism and discussed the process of making newspaper images. The second interview data mapped the online video production of newspapers at a time when Finnish newspapers had recently begun to experiment with video around 2008. The third data set focuses on the limits of photo editing in the Finnish press. The data was gathered in an online survey questionnaire in which respondents were asked to evaluate various photo editing examples. As for analyzation, statistical methods such as distributions and cross tabulations were used to structure the material. The interview data has been analysed by qualitative content analysis after which the material was reorganized into thematic clusters and repetitive elements were identified from the statements of the interviewees.

On one hand, the professional discourse of photographic truthfulness is observed in this study as a practice-based phenomenon. On the other hand, this discourse that has been created in practical work is then examined from different theoretical viewpoints. The theoretical orientation of this research draws elements from journalism research and photography theory. The dissertation includes four peer-reviewed articles and a conclusive chapter, which builds on the theoretical background and ties the articles together. Each of the articles approaches the question of photographic truthfulness from a different perspective.

The first article explores the understanding of objectivity within journalism and the contradiction between journalistic ideals and practice. The viewpoint is expanded by including examples from scientific objectivity and its changes at different times in history. The article strengthens the understanding of journalistic objectivity as a historical and fluid concept. Photography’s central role in journalism becomes understandable in the light of the characteristics of photography and the ideals of journalism.

The second article raises the question of the professionalism of journalism and the ideals of the profession. By using interview examples, the article discusses how the professionals merge the traditional ideals of journalism with the changes of photojournalistic work. For example, the older generation of journalists still uses dark room practices as a guideline even though they now operate in a digital environment. The examples show that the current work practices are adapted in order to fit into the former practices and professional ideals in a way so that they become part of the historical continuum and do not threaten the ideal of journalistic objectivity.

The third article tackles the professional photojournalistic discourses by examining how the professionals themselves, often voluntarily adopt certain dominant norms within their professional practice. Another central question in the article is how the professionals, through their professional discourse and daily choices, take part in knowledge production concerning photojournalism. The viewpoints reflect the French Philosopher Michel Foucault’s theories about power.

Finally, the fourth article focuses on the question of how the professionals justify their choices concerning photo editing. One conclusion of the article suggests that photojournalistic work involves similar ritualistic characteristics that sociologist Gaye Tuchman observed by studying the work practices of news writers as early as the 1970s. Tuchman argued, for example, that journalists use quotations and refer to respected authorities in order to emphasise objectivity.

As a consequence of my research, I argue that journalism professionals are involved in an ongoing negotiation about what is an objective news image. The objectivity of photojournalism is constructed not only in relation to the outside reality but also in relation to the professional norms of the occupation. By referring to the norms and conventions of the practice, the professionals are able to control the contradictions between the work ideals and practice, and meanwhile, legitimize their decisions as part of objective journalism. These norms and conventions are partly spoken but, in a large part, are also based on tacit knowledge and experience and, thus, difficult to explicate. Photojournalistic work involves a great number of routine practices such as the above-mentioned dark room practice example suggests. The decisions made by the professionals are connected to power in many ways. For example, the operation of power is visible in the situations where the professionals create or adjust themselves to the norms agreed upon in the field and when they strive to separate themselves from amateurs by referring to their professional ethics. The power is particularly present when the professionals define the kind of images and practices through which our everyday news photographs are produced. Finally, they define what is worth knowing and true in the sense of the journalistic objectivity.