Maternal exposure to childhood maltreatment is linked to alterations in the trajectories of steroid hormones during pregnancy

Abstract

Background Evidence suggests that the mental health effects of maternal exposure to childhood maltreatment may be transmitted to the next generation, possibly via alterations in maternal stress-sensitive endocrine functioning during gestation, with potential implications for fetal programming. However, empirical evidence supporting this mechanism remains limited. Methods We investigated whether maternal exposure to childhood maltreatment, assessed using the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire, was associated with the levels of 15 steroid hormones and the trajectories of 18 steroid hormones and their substrate-to-product ratios, serving as proxies of metabolizing enzyme activity during pregnancy. Maternal morning plasma samples were collected in mid pregnancy (median 20.29, Interquartile Range [IQR] 19.57–21.14) from 563 mothers, and across early (median 13.0, IQR 12.57–13.43), mid (median 19.29, IQR 19.0 – 19.71), and late (median 27.0, IQR 26.57–27.50) pregnancy from 188 mothers. Results Mothers with moderate-to-severe compared with none-to-low childhood maltreatment had significantly higher mid-pregnancy levels of aldosterone. They also had significantly higher increases in the levels of corticosterone, aldosterone, 11-deoxycortisol, cortisol, cortisone, androstenedione, and testosterone, and in the corticosterone/11-dehydrocorticosterone ratio from early to late pregnancy. These associations were not explained by mother-, child-, and study design-related covariates. Conclusions These findings show that maternal exposure to childhood maltreatment may alter maternal steroid hormone functioning during gestation, potentially contributing to its intergenerational programming effects. The results highlight potential targets for prevention to mitigate the intergenerational transmission of these effects.